Table of Contents

1. Scramble for and Partition of Africa [1]
   • The Meaning of Scramble for and Partition of Africa
   • Periodisation
2. The Causes of the Scramble for Africa Leading to the Partition
3. Why Areas in Africa Experienced More Intensive Scramble than Others
4. The Impact of the Scramble for and Partition of Africa
5. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)
   • The Events Leading to the Berlin Conference (1884/85)
   • The Resolutions of the Berlin Conference
   • The Significance of the Berlin Conference to Africa
6. Establishment of Colonial Control/Rule
   • The Concept of Colonialism
   • The Tactics Used to Impose Colonial Control/Rule in Africa
   • Indirect Rule
   • Assimilation Policy
   • Association Policy
7. African Reactions to Colonial Rule
   • The Meaning of African Reactions to Colonial Rule
   • The Various Forms of African Reactions
   • The Causes of and Reasons for the Different African Reactions
   • The Factors Which Determined the Nature of African Reactions

1. Scramble for and Partition of Africa

The Meaning of Scramble for and Partition of Africa

Scramble for Africa:

A competition among European powers to obtain colonies in Africa.

Partition:

The process of dividing African territories among European colonial powers as a solution to the scramble for Africa.

Periodisation

The scramble for Africa began more intensively in the 1870s, involving various European countries.

2. The Causes of the Scramble for Africa Leading to the Partition

Assess the Causes:

The scramble for and partition of Africa was driven by several factors, including:

• National Balance of Power: European countries demanded colonies to equalize power with Great Britain.
• Prestige: The number of colonies controlled was a measure of national wealth.
• Industrial Revolution: Led to a demand for raw materials and external markets, resulting in competition for African colonies.
• Monopoly System Change: Fewer capitalists in Europe led others to seek land in Africa.
• Conflicts Between Capitalists and Labourers: High labor costs in Europe pushed capitalists to seek cheaper labor in Africa.

3. Why Areas in Africa Experienced More Intensive Scramble than Others

Explanation:

Some African areas, such as Egypt, Congo Basin, Niger Delta, East Africa, Central Africa, and South Africa, experienced more intensive scramble due to their natural resources like minerals, fertile soil, and water bodies.

4. The Impact of the Scramble for and Partition of Africa

Assessment of Impact:

The scramble for and partition of Africa affected both European powers and the African continent, leading to:

• The Berlin Conference
• Cultural interference
• Disputes and rivalries
• Wars among European powers
• Establishment of colonial rule
• Colonial economy and monopoly companies in Africa

5. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)

The Events Leading to the Berlin Conference (1884/85)

Events Leading Up:

Factors included latecomers’ intervention in the scramble, military confrontations, territorial conflicts, European nationalism, German unification, industrialization, and rivalries among European powers.

The Resolutions of the Berlin Conference

Principles Agreed Upon:

• Abolish slave trade in their colonies.
• Send missionaries, traders, and explorers.
• End African resistance.
• Ensure effective colonial control.
• Notify others of colonial possessions.
• Allow free navigation on major rivers.
• Establish economic activities in colonies.

Imperial Trading Companies and Territories:

• BEACO: Kenya
• BSACO: South Africa, S. Rhodesia, N. Rhodesia
• GEACO: Tanganyika, Rwanda, Burundi
• Germany: Cameroon, Togo
• France: Congo, Kinshasa, Tunisia, Morocco, Senegal
• Belgium: Congo Brazzaville
• Portugal: Angola, Mozambique

The Significance of the Berlin Conference to Africa

Significance:

The Berlin Conference marked the colonization of Africa, the abolition of the slave trade, suffering under colonial rule, division of the continent, introduction of European languages, and land alienation.

6. Establishment of Colonial Control/Rule

The Concept of Colonialism

Explanation:

Colonialism refers to the domination of weak nations by stronger ones economically, politically, militarily, or culturally. By the late 19th century, European powers had full control over African countries, excluding Ethiopia and Liberia.

The Tactics Used to Impose Colonial Control/Rule in Africa

Techniques:

• Treaty Making: Agreements signed without African rulers’ full understanding.
• Force/Violence: Use of weapons against stronger African societies.
• Collaboration/Alliance: Alliances with some African societies to oppose others.
• Dual Tactics: Combination of treaties and force.

Treaty Making Examples:

• Carl Peters with Usagara, Kilosa, Pangani.
• French Lochner (BSACO) with Lewanika.
• Maffat with Lobengula.

Force/Violence Examples:

• Germany vs. Hehe
• Germany vs. Abushiri
• Germany vs. Bwana Heri

Collaboration Examples:

• Mangi Marealle and Germany vs. Mangi Sina, Mangi Meli.
• Sangu, Bena and Germany vs. Hehe.

Indirect Rule

Explanation:

A system using African personnel for the lowest administrative posts, introduced by the British, notably in Nigeria and Tanganyika. It aimed to reduce administrative costs and utilize local leaders.

Factors Leading to Indirect Rule:

• Reduce administrative costs.
• Shortage of European administrators.
• Collection of taxes and obtaining cheap labor.
• Remoteness of areas.
• Tropical climate and diseases affecting Europeans.
• Language barriers.
• Reducing resistance by using local leaders.

Assimilation Policy

Explanation:

Used by the French, aiming for cultural change to resemble French culture. Started after the French Revolution of 1789 and implemented in the 1920s in colonies like Senegal.

Implementation:

• French-language schools.
• Certificates for identity and French passports.
• Colonies as “Provinces”.
• French representatives in the legislative council.

Association Policy

Explanation:

Introduced after the failure of the assimilation policy in the 1930s, focusing on economic association rather than cultural assimilation.

Implementation:

• Use of African chiefs for administration.
• Chiefs divided into three types: Chef de village, Chef de conton, Chef de communes.
• Emphasis on tax collection and labor procurement.

7. African Reactions to Colonial Rule

The Meaning of African Reactions to Colonial Rule

Explanation:

African reactions varied from active resistance to passive compliance, depending on the nature of the colonial rule and the specific African societies involved.

The Various Forms of African Reactions

Types of Reactions:

• Violence: Armed resistance.
• Non-Violence: Passive resistance, fleeing, and striking.
• Mercenary: Hiring soldiers from other societies.
• Adaptation: Copying European fighting methods.

The Causes of and Reasons for the Different African Reactions

Reasons for Different Reactions:

• Violence: Strong political and economic societies, harsh treatment, and exploitation.
• Non-Violence: Weak political and economic societies, nomadic lifestyles, and diseases.
• Mercenary: Weak societies needing assistance.
• Adaptation: Weak societies copying European methods.

The Factors Which Determined the Nature of African Reactions

Determining Factors:

• Military strength, ideological beliefs, diseases, economic strength, missionary influence, geographical position, state nature, leader roles, colonial exploitation levels, and political awareness.

The Factors Which Determined the Nature of African Reactions

African reactions to colonial rule were influenced by a range of factors that determined whether societies adopted violent resistance, non-violent resistance, mercenary tactics, or adaptation strategies. These factors include:

1. Military Strength:

• Strong Societies: African societies with strong military capabilities often opted for violent resistance. For example, the Zulu in South Africa, the Hehe in Tanzania, and the Ashanti in Ghana had powerful armies and were more inclined to engage in direct confrontation with colonial forces.
• Weak Societies: Societies with weaker military capabilities tended to avoid direct confrontation. They might choose non-violent methods such as passive resistance or fleeing their homelands to escape colonial control.

1. Ideological Beliefs:

• Cultural and Religious Beliefs: Societies with strong ideological beliefs, including religious and cultural values, sometimes resisted more vehemently against colonial rule, especially if colonial policies threatened their traditional ways of life. For instance, the Maji Maji rebellion in Tanzania was partially fueled by a spiritual belief in the protective power of maji (water).
• Acceptance of Foreign Influence: Societies more open to foreign influence and collaboration might choose to work with colonial powers or adopt their methods.

1. Diseases:

• Health Impact: The presence of diseases such as smallpox, malaria, and jiggers affected the strength and ability of societies to resist. For example, the Haya people in Tanzania were severely affected by jiggers, which weakened their ability to resist colonizers.
• Demoralization: Epidemics could demoralize societies, leading to less active resistance.

1. Economic Strength:

• Rich in Resources: Societies rich in natural resources (e.g., gold, diamonds) were often more fiercely contested and hence might resist more actively to protect their wealth.
• Economic Weakness: Economically weaker societies were less able to mount sustained resistance and might resort to non-violent methods or collaboration for survival.

1. Existence of Missionaries:

• Influence of Missionaries: Areas with significant missionary presence often experienced less violent resistance. Missionaries sometimes acted as mediators and worked to pacify local populations, reducing violent conflicts.
• Cultural Change: Missionaries promoted Western education and Christianity, which could lead to more collaborative attitudes towards colonial authorities.

1. Geographical Position:

• Remote Areas: Societies in remote or difficult-to-access areas could sustain resistance for longer periods due to the logistical challenges faced by colonial forces. Examples include the Ndebele in Matabeleland and the Xhosa in the Eastern Cape of South Africa.
• Strategic Locations: Areas of strategic importance, such as coastal regions or resource-rich areas, faced more intense colonial pressure and hence might experience more intense resistance.

1. Nature of the State:

• Centralized States: Highly centralized states with strong leadership and administration, such as the Kingdom of Buganda or the Ethiopian Empire, were more capable of organizing and sustaining resistance.
• Fragmented Societies: Societies with fragmented political structures found it harder to coordinate resistance efforts and were more likely to succumb to colonial rule.

1. Role of Leaders:

• Charismatic Leaders: Strong and charismatic leaders could inspire and mobilize their people to resist colonial rule. Examples include Menelik II of Ethiopia, who successfully resisted Italian invasion, and Samori Ture in West Africa.
• Collaborative Leaders: Leaders who saw potential benefits in cooperating with colonizers might negotiate and collaborate, leading their people in a more peaceful adaptation to colonial rule.

1. Level of Colonial Exploitation:

• High Exploitation: Regions experiencing high levels of exploitation and harsh treatment were more likely to resist violently. Forced labor, high taxes, and land alienation fueled discontent and uprisings.
• Mild Exploitation: Areas with milder forms of colonial rule might see less violent resistance and more adaptation or collaboration.

1. Political Awareness:
   • Educated Elites: Regions with higher levels of political awareness and educated elites often saw organized resistance movements. Educated Africans used their knowledge to mobilize against colonial injustices, such as the early nationalists in West Africa.
   • Lack of Awareness: In areas with low political awareness, resistance was often uncoordinated and less effective.

These factors combined in various ways to shape the unique responses of different African societies to colonial rule, ranging from fierce armed resistance to strategic collaboration and adaptation.