Summary: Globalization is defined as the increasing process of interdependence and interconnectedness between different political, social and economic components of the world. It is the way in which the world in seen as the global village. Globalization becomes a worldwide system as it integrates people across national boarders, making the world operate as a village and therefore enabling free movement of goods, capital and information.

The Concept and Aspects of Globalization

Globalization is the result of humanity’s inherent drive for progress and change. It traces its origins back to the 16th century, during the era of European exploration and mercantilism, which marked the beginning of extensive overseas trade. From that time onwards, the dynamics of global migration were significantly influenced by Europeans and Americans.

Historical Context

Early Modern Migrations

The first significant wave of modern migrations involved the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade, forcibly relocating approximately 9-12 million people from Africa to the Americas. By the mid-19th century, this trade had firmly integrated West Africa with the global economy through the horrific institution of slavery.

Post-World War II Migration

The integration of global economies became more pronounced following World War II. In the 1950s and 1960s, European economies spurred a renewed wave of global migration. Europeans sought wealth in overseas nations despite the oil shocks of the 1970s and the economic closures in many European peripheries.

Concept and Aspects of Globalization

1970s Onwards

In the 1970s, global migration patterns expanded dramatically, driven by labor demands and regional migrations within Africa, Latin America, and East Asia. From the 1990s onwards, globalization intensified due to advancements in science and technology, along with crises and disintegration in the developing world. This interconnectedness facilitated the development of communication technology and space exploration.

Driving Forces of Globalization

1. Advances in Science and Technology

• Science and technology have greatly contributed to global interconnectedness, creating a single global village. Innovations such as communication machines have simplified human activities. The education process, particularly from the 20th century onwards, played a crucial role in integrating people from diverse cultures and nations.

1. Socio-Political Liberalization

• Derived from liberal democratic principles, socio-political liberalization emphasizes individual freedom as a core principle. This freedom has fostered globalization. The advancement of information and communication technologies, like television, email, cellular phones, and the internet, has played a significant role in this process.
• Political integration on a global scale has also promoted globalization, with national governments being responsible for maintaining security and economic welfare. Examples include the democratization process, multiparty democracy, and the formation of NGOs and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs).

Aspects of Globalization

Globalization, as an economic, political, and social phenomenon, encompasses several major aspects:

1. Information and Communication Technology

• The rapid advancement in information and communication technology, particularly in the last quarter of the 20th century, has been a hallmark of globalization. The rise of companies like Microsoft, Intel, Compaq, and Cisco reflects the swift technological progress.

1. Movement of People

• There has been a significant increase in the movement of people globally, including tourists, migrants, refugees, business travelers, and diplomats. This migration primarily occurs between developing and developed countries, enhancing global interconnectedness.

1. Spread of Ideas and Ideology

• The dissemination of knowledge, ideas, information, and ideologies is a crucial aspect of globalization. This includes the spread of technical skills, managerial skills, marketing skills, and global economic policies. Political ideologies such as multiparty democracy and environmental movements like Greenpeace have gained international prominence.

1. Finance

• The global flow of money is driven by interconnected currency markets, stock exchanges, and commodity markets. This flow is facilitated by international financial institutions such as the IMF and World Bank, along with multilateral banks, ensuring smooth monetary transactions worldwide.

1. Rise of Intellectual Property

• Intellectual property, including patents, copyrighted works, advertisements, and financial services, has become increasingly significant in the global economy.

1. Free Market Economy

• Globalization has led to the integration of international political economies through policies of inter-financial institutions and international trade. The free market economy (neoliberalism) has become a dominant economic ideology, with prices determined by the market.

1. Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP)

• SAPs are policies required by the IMF and World Bank for developing countries to qualify for loans. These policies often include trade liberalization, tax reforms, and reductions in government expenditure. SAPs aim to improve economic stability and growth but have faced criticism for their impacts on local economies and social structures.

Objectives of SAP

• Introduce tax reforms and eliminate trade restrictions.
• Rationalize the public sector and enhance employment opportunities.
• Improve public investment programs.
• Reform the agricultural sector and market liberalization.
• Mobilize domestic resources and restore economic growth.
• Devalue local currencies to balance exchange rates.
• Reduce poverty and improve living standards in developing countries.

Reasons for SAP Formation

• Decline in GDP and export earnings.
• Reduction in import purchases due to tariffs.
• Economic crises such as the oil shock of the 1970s and regional conflicts.

Principles of SAP

• Eliminate tariffs, reduce taxes, and promote private sector roles in export trade.
• Lower agricultural sector taxes and liberalize export crop marketing.
• Reform wage setting practices and improve public sector management.
• Encourage privatization and cost-sharing in social services.
• Privatize the agricultural sector to minimize government expenditure.

Achievements of SAP

• Raised living standards through economic sustainability and growth.
• Increased agricultural production, exports, investments, and consumption.
• Improved investment performance and export growth rates.
• Enhanced consumer choice and reduced bureaucracy in public services.
• Promoted political democratization and good governance.

Failures of SAP

• Accelerated poverty in rural areas and failed to achieve most objectives.
• Low economic diversification and insufficient investment in technology.
• Disruption of local industries due to competition with international companies.
• Introduction of user fees in social services, affecting access to education and healthcare.
• Creation of social stratification and exacerbation of inequalities.
• Political chaos and conflicts in some regions due to multiparty democracy.

In conclusion, globalization is a multifaceted phenomenon driven by advancements in science and technology, socio-political liberalization, and various economic policies. While it has brought numerous benefits, it has also posed significant challenges, particularly for developing countries. Understanding the complexities of globalization is essential for navigating its impacts on global societies.

Solutions to the Challenges of Globalization and SAPs

Globalization and Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) have brought significant changes and challenges to developing countries. Addressing these challenges requires a multifaceted approach that includes state intervention, prioritization, human capital development, effective tax collection, support for local industries, and economic integration. Here are detailed solutions to each challenge:

The Way Forward

1. State Interventions

• Regulatory Framework: The state should establish a regulatory framework to ensure fair market conditions for all participants, including buyers and sellers.
• Market Accessibility: Government interventions should make markets accessible to all, preventing the rich from getting richer at the expense of the poor.

2. Prioritization in Privatization

• Selective Privatization: Not all government institutions should be privatized. Prioritization should be based on strategic importance and potential impacts on sovereignty and market balance.
• Security and Development: Consider the implications of privatization on national security and the well-being of the population, ensuring essential services remain accessible to all.

3. Human Capital Development

• Education: Establish more schools with curricula that align with the needs of SAPs and the global market.
• Skill Development: Focus on providing sound and appropriate education to enhance the competitiveness of the workforce in the global market.

4. Effective Tax Collection

• No Tax Holidays: Avoid providing tax holidays to investors to ensure consistent revenue collection for development.
• Tax Reforms: Implement reforms to prevent manipulation and ensure fair tax contributions from all investors.

5. Support for Local Industries

• Subsidies: Provide subsidies to local industries to enhance their competitiveness.
• Regional Integration: Encourage regional integration among Low Developed Countries (LDCs) to create larger markets for local products and establish common pricing strategies.

6. Economic Integration

• Infrastructure Development: Improve infrastructure to facilitate movement of goods and people within the region.
• Political Commitment: Ensure political leaders are committed to implementing integration policies and decisions.
• Common Language and Currency: Promote a common language for communication and consider a common currency to streamline trade and transactions.
• Differentiated Products: Encourage countries to specialize in products where they have a comparative advantage.

Solutions to Specific SAP Challenges

1. Poverty and Inequality

• Targeted Programs: Implement programs aimed at reducing poverty and addressing income inequality, particularly in rural areas.
• Social Safety Nets: Establish social safety nets to support vulnerable populations during economic transitions.

2. Economic Diversification

• Invest in Technology: Promote investment in technology and innovation to diversify the economy.
• Support SMEs: Provide support to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to encourage entrepreneurship and economic diversification.

3. Agricultural Sector Decline

• Agricultural Incentives: Reintroduce government support and incentives for the agricultural sector to boost production and rural livelihoods.
• Sustainable Practices: Encourage sustainable agricultural practices to enhance productivity and environmental conservation.

4. Unemployment

• Job Creation Programs: Develop job creation programs, particularly in sectors with high growth potential.
• Vocational Training: Offer vocational training and re-skilling programs to help workers adapt to new job opportunities.

5. Quality of Services

• Regulation and Oversight: Establish regulatory bodies to oversee service quality and prevent cost-cutting measures that compromise standards.
• Public-Private Partnerships: Promote public-private partnerships to leverage the strengths of both sectors in providing high-quality services.

6. Corruption and Power Abuse

• Anti-Corruption Measures: Implement strong anti-corruption measures and establish independent oversight bodies to monitor government and private sector activities.
• Transparency and Accountability: Enhance transparency and accountability in all sectors to build public trust and ensure fair practices.

Privatization Process

Objectives of Privatization

• Market-Oriented Economy: Create a more market-oriented economy by involving privatized firms in the stock market.
• Productivity and Efficiency: Improve the productivity and efficiency of privatized enterprises.
• Foreign Investment: Attract foreign investors to bring in capital and technology.
• Ownership Broadening: Ensure broad and equitable ownership of privatized services.
• Debt Reduction: Use tax revenues from privatized firms to reduce public debt.
• Self-Reliance: Promote self-reliance by reducing dependence on government support.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Privatization

• Advantages:
• Increased flexibility and reduced bureaucracy.
• Enhanced efficiency and competition.
• Better services and more options for consumers.
• Disadvantages:
• Increased unemployment due to redundancy.
• Decline in agricultural support.
• Potential reduction in service quality.
• Increased moral erosion and poverty in rural areas.

Trade Liberalization

• Free Trade Benefits: Promote the unhindered flow of goods and services to enhance economic growth.
• Eliminate Barriers: Remove tariffs and trade barriers to foster competition and investment.

Democratization Process

• Political Competition: Ensure free and fair political competition with multiparty systems.
• Tolerance and Participation: Foster tolerance and encourage citizen participation in democratic processes.
• Equality and Accountability: Promote equality and hold officials accountable to the people.
• Economic Freedom and Rule of Law: Ensure economic freedom and uphold the rule of law.

By implementing these solutions and strategies, developing countries can address the challenges posed by globalization and SAPs, fostering sustainable economic growth, social equity, and political stability.

Economic Integration: An Overview

Economic integration has become increasingly significant in today’s globalized world. It refers to the collaboration or unification of several countries to cooperate in various economic undertakings, thereby reaping mutual economic benefits. While primarily aimed at enhancing international trade benefits, economic integration can also foster political integration, both nationally and between states.

Levels of Economic Integration

Economic integration can be classified into several stages based on the level of development:

1. Free Trade Area (FTA)

• In an FTA, member countries remove all trade barriers such as tariffs, import and export quotas to facilitate free trade among themselves. However, each member retains the right to impose tariffs on non-member countries.

1. Customs Union

• Beyond the FTA, a customs union involves the abolition of trade restrictions among member countries and the establishment of a common external tariff on goods from non-member countries.

1. Common Market

• This stage adds free movement of factors of production (capital and labor) among member countries. For example, individuals from one member country can work in any other member country without restrictions.

1. Economic Community (Union)

• At this stage, member countries adopt joint ownership of certain enterprises (e.g., roads, railways) and harmonize economic policies.

1. Total Economic Integration

• This advanced stage includes unification of monetary, fiscal, social, and other policies. Members may adopt a common currency and a supra-national authority that makes binding decisions for all members.

Necessary Conditions for Successful Economic Integration

For economic integration to be successful, several conditions must be met:

• Good Infrastructure: Facilitates movement of goods and people.
• Political Will and Commitment: Essential for implementing resolutions and making necessary decisions.
• Common Language: Eases communication among people engaging in socio-economic and political activities.
• Common Currency: Simplifies exchange processes.
• Differentiated Products: Each country should specialize in products of comparative advantage.
• Trade Gains: All member countries should benefit from trade.
• Similar Level of Development: Reduces uneven distribution of gains.
• Geographical Proximity: Easier to engage in economic activities and establish joint institutions.
• Cultural Similarities: Facilitates interactions in trade and investments.
• Trade Creation: Occurs when member countries import from low-cost member countries after tariff abolition.

Reasons for Economic Integration

The rationale for economic integration includes:

• Market Expansion: Provides a common voice to advocate for market expansion of member countries’ goods.
• Industrial Development: Facilitates the movement of production factors and technology, avoiding industrial duplication.
• Transport and Communication Development: Promotes easy distribution of goods and information flow.
• Security and Unity: Strengthens security and unity among historically disunited countries.
• Peace and Human Rights: Maintains peace and upholds human rights, fostering democracy.
• Research and Development: Promotes comprehensive research across various fields.
• Economic Diversification: Encourages producing a variety of goods and establishing new enterprises.
• Sustainable Resource Use: Enhances capacity for rational resource use through shared experiences and technologies.
• Common Policy Formulation: Addresses global problems like population, diseases, and environmental challenges.
• Investment Promotion: Expands markets, assures peace, and makes resources available.
• Standard of Living Improvement: Increases production, facilitates movement of goods, and diversifies economies.
• Employment Opportunities: Arises from economic diversification and industrial development.
• Better Borrowing Opportunities: Easier to borrow as a community rather than individually.
• Quality of Production: Enhances through positive competition.
• Shared Services: Facilitates sharing of services like telecommunications and medical services.
• Trade Efficiency: Promotes smooth trade with a common currency and tariff removal.
• Political Cooperation: Encourages sharing ideas for effective production and peace.

Disadvantages of Economic Integration

Economic integration also has several drawbacks:

• Trade Diversion: High-cost trade can replace low-cost trade due to geographical restrictions.
• Uneven Goods Movement: Can lead to polarized development where some countries develop faster.
• Quality Issues: Countries may be compelled to buy low-quality goods due to low technology levels.
• Industrial Disparity: More industrialized countries may develop at the expense of others.
• Political Problems: Some leaders may seek to maintain positions for personal gain.
• Cultural Disruptions: Multiple interactions can lead to moral deterioration and unwanted behaviors.
• Tariff Harmonization Difficulties: Differences in foreign policies can complicate tariff harmonization.
• Similar Goods Production: Forces member countries to seek external markets.

Factors Facilitating Economic Integration

Several factors can facilitate economic integration:

• Strong Determination: States with strong determination can integrate faster.
• Common Language: Enhances communication and cooperation.
• Cooperative Leadership: Leaders willing to cooperate can expedite integration.
• External Influences: Donors and successful integration examples can stimulate integration.
• Well-Developed Infrastructure: Facilitates the movement of goods and services.
• Positive Economic Performance: Countries with good economic records integrate more easily.
• Peace and Security: Essential for stakeholder participation.
• Advanced Technology: High-quality products attract markets, facilitating integration.

In conclusion, while economic integration offers numerous benefits such as market expansion, industrial development, and improved living standards, it also presents challenges including trade diversion, uneven development, and political issues. Successful integration relies on several conditions and factors, emphasizing the need for cooperation, strong infrastructure, and favorable political and economic environments.

Constraints (Setbacks) on Economic Integration in Developing Countries

1. Low Technology:

• Developing countries often suffer from low levels of technological advancement, which hampers industrial development. Poor technology results in low-quality products that struggle to compete in international markets, leading to reduced income generation.

1. Political Instability:

• Wars and political conflicts disrupt peace and security, making it difficult for people to engage in productive activities and cross-border interactions essential for economic integration.

1. Balkanization:

• The division of states creates barriers to cooperation in economic activities. When people in one country view those in another as fundamentally different, it undermines collaborative efforts.

1. Poor Infrastructure:

• Inadequate roads, railways, and other infrastructure impede the movement of goods, services, and production factors between member countries, thus hindering effective cooperation.

1. High Degree of Poverty:

• Poverty weakens the ability of people to move between countries, invest in technology, and produce high-quality goods. It also limits their capacity to contribute to and benefit from regional integration efforts.

1. Market Problems:

• Issues related to common markets and local market operations can obstruct positive cooperation among member countries.

1. Uneven Resource Distribution:

• Some countries naturally possess more resources than others, leading to unequal cooperation. Countries with abundant resources may be reluctant to share them with less-endowed neighbors.

1. Environmental Challenges:

• Natural disasters, diseases, and pandemics can disrupt cooperation as they physically and psychologically unsettle populations, making effective collaboration difficult.

1. Cultural Differences:

• Diverse tribes, religions, and political ideologies can impede integration as these differences may lead to misunderstandings and conflicts.

1. Leadership Issues:
   • Lust for power among leaders can hinder economic integration. Some leaders may resist relinquishing authority necessary for regional cooperation.
2. Lack of Commitment:
   • Reluctance or lack of commitment from some countries to contribute to the development of the organization can lead to ineffective operations.
3. High Illiteracy Rates:
   • Illiteracy obstructs the diffusion of technology and knowledge, critical for economic integration.
4. Population Pressures:
   • Rapid population growth creates resource pressures, diverting government attention from integration efforts to addressing domestic challenges like food supply.
5. Resource Depletion:
   • Over-exploitation of resources can exhaust the natural wealth necessary for sustainable economic cooperation.
6. Inferiority Complex:
   • Smaller, less developed countries may fear domination by more powerful neighbors, leading to reluctance in joining or fully committing to integration efforts.

Effects of Globalization in Tanzania

Social-Economic Effects

Positive Effects:

1. Utilization of Natural Resources:

• Globalization has spurred investment in Tanzania’s natural resources, with foreign companies engaged in mining and other sectors, aiding in the country’s development.

1. Enhanced Production and Transportation:

• Improved production techniques and faster transportation enable Tanzania to access a variety of goods globally, enhancing consumer choices.

1. Employment Opportunities:

• Globalization has created jobs through foreign investments, with companies like Vodacom and Zain employing many Tanzanians.

1. Better Social Services:

• Liberalization has led to the proliferation of private schools and hospitals, improving access to essential services.

Negative Effects:

1. Decline of Local Industries:

• Influx of cheaper, high-quality foreign goods undermines local industries, leading to their decline and stifling local technology development.

1. Exploitation by Multinational Companies:

• Without proper regulation, foreign companies can exploit resources and citizens, leading to super-profits for the companies and minimal benefits for the locals.

1. Unemployment:

• Technological advancements and automation reduce the need for human labor, resulting in job losses.

1. Unequal Exchange:

• Northern countries exploit the resources of the South, undermining local communities and economies.

1. Environmental Degradation:

• Industrial activities lead to environmental harm, including deforestation, pollution, and turning developing countries into dumping grounds for waste products.

Political Effects

Positive Effects:

1. Improved International Law Compliance:

• Globalization promotes adherence to international laws and human rights standards, influencing national legislation positively.

1. Global Political Integration:

• Tanzania participates in international organizations, enhancing its political influence and collaboration.

1. Formation of Political Organizations:

• Efforts to form regional political entities, like the East Africa Federation, are bolstered by globalization.

1. Democratization:

• Adoption of democratic principles such as transparency and accountability is accelerated.

Negative Effects:

1. Power Centralization:

• Power becomes concentrated in major capitalist countries, making developing countries more accountable to these powers than to their own citizens.

1. Exposure to Global Conflicts:

• Global political conflicts and terrorism can spill over into Tanzania, as evidenced by the US embassy bombing in Dar es Salaam.

1. Challenges to Regional Political Organizations:

• Global influences can hinder the formation and effectiveness of regional political organizations like the African Union.

1. Domestic Political Instability:

• Democratic reforms sometimes create internal political instability as they can be manipulated for personal or political gain.

Cultural Effects

Positive Effects:

1. Diffusion of Good Practices:

• International values such as human rights and better living standards spread to Tanzanian communities.

1. Integration of Global Culture:

• Globalization fosters common cultural practices like sports and music through advances in communication technology.

1. Condemnation of Harmful Practices:

• Harmful cultural practices, like Female Genital Mutilation (FGM), face global condemnation, leading to their decline.

1. Transformation by Religious Institutions:

• Global religious institutions promote positive cultural transformations and eradication of harmful practices.

Negative Effects:

1. Cultural Erosion:

• Local cultures are eroded by dominant global cultures, with young Tanzanians increasingly adopting Western lifestyles.

1. Moral Decay:

• Exposure to global cultural trends leads to the erosion of traditional morals and an increase in behaviors like drug abuse and prostitution.

1. Language Marginalization:

• Native languages, including Kiswahili, are marginalized as English becomes the preferred language, seen as a marker of civilization.

1. Loss of Traditional Practices:

• Traditional songs and ceremonies are replaced by Western ones, leading to cultural homogenization.

Environmental Impact

Negative Impacts:

1. Deforestation and Depletion of Resources:

• Global trade demands lead to deforestation and depletion of fisheries and other natural resources.

1. Increased Pollution:

• Industrial activities result in higher emissions of toxic gases, contributing to air and water pollution.

1. Global Warming:

• Industrial emissions contribute to global warming, causing climate changes that affect Tanzania’s environment.

1. Resource Exploitation:

• The high demand for resources leads to their over-exploitation, resulting in long-term environmental degradation.

Overall, while globalization offers potential benefits for economic development, it also poses significant challenges and risks that need to be carefully managed to ensure sustainable and equitable growth.

Challenges of Globalization in Tanzania

Globalization presents various challenges to Tanzania, impacting different sectors and aspects of society:

1. Low Level of Communication Systems:

• The adoption and usage of global communication technologies such as satellites and telephones remain low and underdeveloped in Tanzania. This issue is compounded by the uneven distribution of communication infrastructure, which is concentrated in urban areas while rural populations remain largely unconnected. As a result, rural communities are marginalized and isolated from the global communication network.

1. Low Production Capacity:

• Key economic sectors in Tanzania, including agriculture, industry, mining, and fishing, are not producing sufficient goods for export. The increase in international trade, a hallmark of globalization, positions Tanzania primarily as a consumer of foreign goods rather than a producer and exporter, hindering economic growth and self-sufficiency.

1. Low Educational Attainment:

• The educational levels in Tanzania are significantly lower compared to global standards. This inadequacy fails to meet the intellectual demands of globalization, such as technological, managerial, entrepreneurial, and marketing skills. Consequently, Tanzanians are at a disadvantage in competing for employment opportunities on the global stage.

1. Low Savings and Investment Growth:

• Tanzania struggles with low savings rates, limited individual financial capacity, and a prolonged cycle of poverty. These factors contribute to insufficient investment growth, which is necessary for economic development and competitiveness in a globalized economy.

1. Declining Primary Export Prices:

• The primary exports from Tanzania face downward pressure on prices in the world market. This trend discourages primary producers, who are often small-scale, vulnerable peasants, and undermines their economic stability.

Possible Solutions for Challenges of Globalization

To address the challenges posed by globalization, Tanzania can implement several strategies:

1. Policy Focus on National Issues:

• Develop policies that address Tanzania’s specific problems, emphasizing poverty reduction by improving healthcare, education, and social security for citizens.

1. Investor-Friendly Environment:

• Create favorable conditions for investors to stabilize the macro-economy. Ensure that investments come with conditions that benefit Tanzanians, rather than merely facilitating profit extraction by foreign entities.

1. Priority on Quality Education:

• Make education a top priority and ensure it is compulsory for all citizens. The government should strive to provide high-quality education that equips Tanzanians with the skills needed to navigate and succeed in a globalized world.

1. Efficient Resource Utilization:

• Properly utilize both natural and human resources to stimulate economic growth. Address issues such as the shortage of skilled professionals by creating opportunities that retain talent within the country. Develop unused fertile lands to improve food security.

1. Promotion of Research and Innovation:

• Invest in research and education to improve production processes and the quality of goods. This will enable Tanzanian products to compete effectively in the global market.

1. Regional Integration and Cooperation:

• Strengthen regional integrations and cooperation, such as membership in SADC and the East African Community. This can help Tanzania and neighboring countries collectively address the exploitative practices of more developed nations.

1. Combat Corruption:

• Maintain a relentless fight against corruption to ensure that public resources are used effectively and equitably, preventing the enrichment of a few at the expense of the majority.

Exercise

1. Define the term globalization.
2. Explain briefly the aspects of globalization.
3. What are the impacts of globalization in Tanzania?
4. Discuss the effects of globalization on the environment.
5. Identify the challenges of globalization in Tanzania.
6. Suggest possible solutions to the challenges of globalization in Tanzania.
7. Discuss the concept of international cooperation.
8. What advantages does Tanzania get from membership in the new East African Community?
9. Account for the privatization of public enterprises in Tanzania.
10. Point out the effects of trade liberalization policies on the majority of Tanzanians.
11. Assess the impact of globalization on political and cultural aspects.
12. Mention the challenges of globalization in Tanzania and suggest measures to cope with globalization.
13. Using any sector of your choice, show the impact of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) on the development of that sector and society at large.
14. Discuss how economic and political liberalization has undermined efforts to develop national culture in Tanzania.
15. From independence to the 1980s, education in Tanzania was provided free of charge. With SAP conditionalities, the situation has changed. Discuss this assertion, highlighting the advantages and limitations of both periods in the country’s development.